Organizational Citizenship Behaviour (OCB) Essay - 1796 Words

What is organizational citizenship? Explain the links between the various types of organizational citizenship behaviors and job-related outcomes. In what ways does organizational citizenship affect organizational performance? Illustrate with examples where appropriate. Organizational Citizenship Organizational citizenship is an organizational success that consists of supports from the volunteers of individuals and behavior (Business Dictionary 2013). Organizational citizenship behaviors (OCB) is defined as discretionary individual behavior which is indirectly recognized by a system – Formal Reward System and the efficiency together with the effectiveness functioning of an organization will be promoted collectively. Organizational†¦show more content†¦For example, functions/meetings that is organized by the company might not be necessary for employees to attend but the employees still attend in order to keep up with the chances in the organization, and taking the advantage to provide how can the company performs better (MacKenzie, Podsakoff Fetter 1993, p. 71). Next type of organizational citizenship behavior is courtesy and cooperation where in an organization, all employees work together as one body (Johns M. Saks 2007, p. 56). Examples could be informing departments about what big proposal of project is coming or sacrificing oneself in terms of own work to help the other colleagues that are in a job which is in an emergency mode. Podsakoff et al. (2000, p. 517) mentioned a form that consist of spreading good will, having the organization protected, loyalty towards organization and loyal boosterism - Organizational loyalty. It protects and defends the organization from external threats while promoting it outwardly. Such form usually exists on salesman or insurance agent where they have to promote their organization to people while protecting and defending it as well. Final form of OCB would be organizational compliance, in another word, organizational obedience (Graham 1991). This refers to an acceptance and internalization of the organization’s rules, regulation and procedures of a person. Together with this form, thatShow MoreRelatedOrganizational Citizenship Behaviour ( Ocb )1564 Words   |  7 PagesIntroduction Organizational citizenship behaviour (OCB) have long been a field studied by many in order to find out whether there are correlations between different personalities that have a direct effect to OCB. Personality Personality is often characterized as unique behaviors that individual possessed that sets him or her apart form others. On the other hand, Allport (1961: 28) states â€Å"Personality is the dynamic organization within the individual of those psychophysical systems that determineRead MoreThe Impact Of Organizational Citizenship Behaviour By The Five Dimensions, Antecedents And Their Consequences1648 Words   |  7 PagesSOUTHERN CROSS UNIVERSITY Student Name : Aneesh Rama Student ID No. : 22496283 Unit Name : Organisational Behaviour Unit Code : MNG82001 Assignment No. : 1 Assignment Title : Literature Review Due date : 23rd November 2015 Date submitted : 19th November 2015 Word count : 1472 Declaration: I have read and understand the Rules relating to Awards (Rule 3.18) as contained in the University Handbook. I understand the penalties that apply forRead MoreOrganizational Citizenship Behavior Is Defined As A Set Of Behaviors1669 Words   |  7 Pages Literature review Introduction: Organizational citizenship behavior is defined as a set of behaviors which extends from one s basic requirements of job. Generally, organizational citizenship is extra role behavior or a variety of behaviors like helping colleagues and organization by presenting it in a positive way in front of others and by doing over time voluntarily. The first research made on organizational citizenship behavior was by Bateman and Organ in 1980 s. They presented their genuineRead MoreNotes On Organizational Citizenship Behavior1703 Words   |  7 Pages In reference to Organizational Citizenship Behavior (OCB) – the individual behavior which is elective, and is not directly or explicitly recognized by a formal reward system, and that promotes the effective functioning of the organization, and has been studied beginning in the 1970s, this article covers the study of numerous predictors of OCB in the Gulf of Saudi Arabia which consisted of surveying close to 300 private and public employees. The types of predictors which were studied includeRead MoreThe Development Of Organizational Citizenship Behaviour3154 Words   |  13 Pages2001). Out of this comes the development of Organizational Citizenship Behaviour (OCB). OCB represents â€Å"individual behaviour that is discretionary, not directly or explicitly recognised by the formal reward system, and in the aggregate promotes the efficient and effective functioning of the organization† (Organ 1988, p. 4). The study of OCB has become increasingly important as the prevalence, importance, and costs of counterproductive, or deviant, behaviour in the workplace have been increasingly recognisedRead MoreOrganizational Justice : Impact On Job Satisfaction Among Employees And Their Organisational Citizenship Behaviour1782 Words   |  8 PagesORGANISATIONAL JUSTICE : IMPACT ON JOB SATISFACTION AMONG EMPLOYEES AND THEIR ORGANISATIONAL CITIZENSHIP BEHAVIOUR INTRODUCTION: Organizational Justice is one of the very important components of understanding the behavior of an organization. It is a concept wherein an individual considers the organization he or she is working for is just or not. It is an individual’s perception of his or her employer being fair to him or her or not. The justice or the fairness can be in terms of workplace proceduresRead MoreRetirement: Stereotypes and Combined Effects of Gender and Age1636 Words   |  7 PagesDifferential Consequences and Rewards of Organizational Citizenship Behavior for Younger and Older Workers Employees are increasingly pushing back retirement leading to an older and higher proportion of older employees in the workplace. In fact, the SHRM Workplace Forecast (2013) released by The Society for Human Resource’s listed the generation gap as a top future workplace trend. In addition, women are to becoming more and more a part of today’s workforce. However, both older individuals and womenRead MoreOrganisational Citizenship Behaviour and Counterproductive Work Behaviour2204 Words   |  9 PagesOrganisational Citizenship Behaviour and Counterproductive Work Behaviour Introduction Organisational behaviour is the study of human behaviour in the workplace, the interaction between people and the organisation, and organisation itself (Dubrin 2002, p. 2). In most of the organisational behaviour literature review, the following five types of behaviours are often highlighted- task performance, organisational citizenship, counterproductive work behaviours, joining and staying with the organisationRead MoreThe Importance Of Teamwork, Social Responsibility And Communication1879 Words   |  8 PagesThis essay looks at workplace citizenship and its essential components and critically argues the importance of teamwork, social responsibility and communication as important core values and skills to the NGO sector. Today the highly competitive and global marketplace is moving towards high performance, effective organizations that generate high degrees of employee job satisfaction. As a result a substantial amount of research and study has been conducted to determine the various factors that mayRead MoreThe Effect Of Organizational Silence On Organization Behavior, Job Performance, And Creativity1830 Words   |  8 Pagesorganization citizenship behaviour, job performance, counterproductive work behaviour and creativity† Aim of study is to determine the relationship between organization silence and organization citizenship behaviour, job performance, counterproductive work behaviour and creativity. Either this relationship has positive influence or negative. Purpose of study: Objective of this quantitative study is to determine the influence of organizational silence on organization citizenship behaviour, job performance

Describe and Evaluate Psychological Research Into Obedience Free Essays

Obedience results from pressure to comply with authority. Children are taught to obey from an early age by their care givers, in order for them to conform in society. The authoritarian rule continues through their education and working life, and is then passed on to the next generation. We will write a custom essay sample on Describe and Evaluate Psychological Research Into Obedience or any similar topic only for you Order Now This essay will focus on the work of the American psychologist Stanley Milgram. It will also look at other studies into obedience that evolved from Milgram’s experiments from the early 1960s. Stanley Milgram is one of the leading researchers into the psychology of obedience. Rice et al (2008) and was interested why thousands of German soldiers blindly obeyed orders that resulted in the death of millions of Jewish people during World War II. However if a soldier is obeying orders from their superiors, then should responsibility for the consequences be held to those superiors? But evidence suggests that there was a mass willingness of tens of thousands of people to cooperate with the Nazi regime, even to the extent of shopping neighbours to the Gestapo. Rice et al (2008). The Allies saw the Germans as an authoritarian, militaristic and obedient nation. Suggesting an explanation for this extreme behaviour. Adorno et al (1950) claimed that it was the authoritarian personality that was responsible for the persecution of the Jews in Nazi Germany. Milgram was sceptical of this, believing that obedience was owed more to the situation than to the national character of a particular nation. So in the early 1960s Milgram conducted a series of experiments to support his theory. The aim of Milgram’s Study of Obedience (1963) was to investigate how far people would go in obeying an authority figure. He advertised in local newspapers. The ad was for participation in a study of learning at Yale University. Participants would be paid $4. 50 just for turning up. Through the ads, Milgram had signed up 40 males between the ages of 20 to 50 with various occupations, and all came from a range of educational backgrounds. Believing they were participating in the effects of punishment on learning, the participants were brought to a laboratory setting at Yale, where they would be individually tested. Here they met with the experimenter, dressed in a grey laboratory coat, who appeared stern and impassive throughout the experiment (Class Handout 1). The other participant present would be a confederate to the experiment, and through a fixed lottery, would always be given the role of learner. The participant would then see his apparent peer be strapped to a chair and then the experimenter would attach electrodes to him. The participant was given an initial trail shock of 45 volts, then moved behind a partition. The experiment required the participant to ask the confederate questions on word pairs. For each mistake that was made, the participant was to administer an electric shock to the learner, gradually increasing the voltage from 15 volts up to a lethal 450 volts. The only contact with the learner was through an intercom. Throughout the test, the participant would be observed by the experimenter. During the experiment the learner would constantly make mistakes. As the voltage would increase with each incorrect answer, at specific levels, the learner would protest about the shocks. Beginning with moans and groans, begging to be released, kicking the wall and at 315 volts there would be no further responses (Class Handout 1. As the shocks, and responses, increased many of the participants became upset. Three of the participants had uncontrollable seizures, one being so severe that the experiment had to be halted Rice et al (2008). Any questions the participants asked the experimenter during the test, whether it be a request to stop the experiment or asking about the welfare of the learner, would result in the experimenter responding with four verbal prods to continue. Only after the fourth prod would the experiment would finish or when the maximum amount of shocks had been delivered. The results showed that 65% of the participants continued to the maximum level. The results of the first experiment are difficult to generalise to the whole population as Milgram only used American males as participants. Therefore, in a series of follow up experiments, Milgram (1974) investigated factors which may vary the level of obedience. Rice et al (2008). Depending on the variations to the original experiments, the results changed considerably – with 92% complete obedience with the two teacher condition. This would be were the participant would be paired with a second confederate also playing the role of teacher. It would be the confederate delivering the shocks while the participant would only read the questions (Class Handout 1). The allocation of responsibility had now shifted to the confederate who was administering the shocks. The other notable change would be the social support condition which showed a significant drop, with only 10% complete obedience. Two more confederates would join the participant as teachers, but soon refused to obey. Most subjects stopped very soon after the others (Class Handout 1). This would imply that disobedience, or obedience, is more likely to happen when there is social pressure present. To test the ecological validity of Milgram’s work Bickman (1974) used 3 male experimenters, dressed in one of three ways: a sports coat and tie, a milkman’s uniform or a security guard’s uniform. The experimenters randomly gave 153 pedestrians one of three orders. (Class Handout 2). Bickman found that most people obeyed the experimenter dressed as the guard. This might explain how obedience can be related to perceived authority – thus supporting Milgram’s findings. On the other hand the orders, unlike Milgram’s were not so unreasonable – and so in a public setting, it would be down to attitudes and individual differences as to whether people would comply with any mundane requests, regardless of what they are wearing. Support is also shown by the results of Hofling et al (1966). In this experiment at a hospital, twenty-two nurses were called by an unknown doctor (a confederate), requesting they administer drugs to a patient. The order from the doctor, if they went through with it, would have the nurses disobey three hospital rules. First of all, they didn’t know the doctor that was calling them. Second, they didn’t have written authorization. And finally, the dose that was instructed to be given was twice as high as the maximum dosage allowed, this was also stated on the medicine bottle. Despite this twenty-one out of twenty-two nurses obeyed the telephoned instructions, before they were stopped and the situation explained to them. Rice et al (2008) Since being in a natural setting, the study was ecologically valid with the results supporting Milgram’s theory. However on the other hand there are clear ethical issues with this study in that the nurses were deceived, there was no consent given prior to the experiment and they had no right to withdraw. With Milgram’s original experiment being carried out in the 1960s, it may suggest that his results can no longer be justifiable in today’s modern society. With the ethical guidelines of today, a replication of the study would now seem impossible. Nevertheless, after making variations to some of Milgram’s procedures, Burger (2007) managed to replicate Milgram’s experiment. Going as far as using the same words in the memory test and the experimenter’s lab coat. The most critical changes were made to the ethical treatment of the participants. The experiment was stopped at the 150 volt mark, this was also the point of the first vocal feedback from the learner. From looking at Milgram’s data, participants who continued past 150 volts, 79 percent went all the way to 450 volts. Burger (2007). This allowed them to estimate what the participants would do if they where allowed to continue. Deception was a criticism of the original experiment. To avoid this, participants were told at least three times that they had the right to withdraw and still receive the full payment. The results were similar to that of more than four decades ago. With 70% willing to continue after the 150 volts. With no significant differences between genders and even with the ethical restrictions, this Study supports Milgram’s original results of well over forty years ago. Another criticism of Milgram’s research is that it was only conducted with Americans and so lacks cross-cultural validity. The experiment has now been replicated across the globe, with the majority of studies showing high levels of obedience, with participants continuing to the maximum shock level. Ranging from 90% in Spain, 80% in Italy, Germany and Austria and 50% in the UK. Rice et al (2008). One exception to this would be in Australia, Kilham Mann (1974) in one variation of their experiments, their results showed a minor 16% obedience rate of the subjects, in comparison to Milgram’s original 65%. On the other hand, when looking at the methodology on this particular variation, there are a few notable changes. First of all the general population (male and female variations) that Milgram used had now been replaced by all female students. However the biggest difference is the confederate that was used in the Australian sample – they used a fellow female student. This may of impacted on the participants’ willingness to cause pain to someone they saw as equal to themselves, thus resulting in the lower percentage of obedience. In general the results from the cultural and geographical variations continue to support Milgram’s findings. Throughout all the criticisms of Milgram’s early work, the general reliability and validity of these experiments from the early 1960s (as already discussed) have been continued through to modern times, across cultural variations and in and out of the laboratory setting. The results, although varying in some degrees (dependent upon the methodology used in the later studies) still show that people will obey authority even when it violates their core values and lead them to harm others. A criticism that persistently follows the Milgram experiment has been the ethical treatment of the participants in the experiment. Milgram’s main defence centres on the debrief that all participants received afterwards. They all received a full report of the procedure and findings. They were also sent a questionnaire to complete which showed that a high percentage of participants stated they were happy they took part in the experiment. So although the experiment did breach today’s ethical guidelines, on the other hand Milgram did not breach these guidelines, since they did not exist at the time. How to cite Describe and Evaluate Psychological Research Into Obedience, Essays

Principles Of Digital Communication Coding -Myassignmenthelp.Com

Question: Discuss About The Principles Of Digital Communication Coding? Answer: Introduction Business Communication can be defined as information sharing between the organisation and the people outside and within that need to be performed for the commercial benefit of the organisation (Turker and Altuntas 2014). Business communication can encompass brand management, marketing, customer behaviour, public relation, advertising and reputation. Effective business communication can be performed through using of face-to-face communication, e-mail, telephonic, social media and online. However, it is very important for an organisation to choose the effective communication media so that they can use these to reach the desired customers. In writing the communication for the proposed audiences, it deals with planning, drafting and revising the content. In order to conduct the study, Zara, fashion organisation has been chosen. The aim of the report is to identify the challenges in business communication used by Zara and proposing solutions to Zaras management. Communication models of Zara Zara is a clothing accessories retailer and it was founded in the year 1974. Headquarter of the organisation is at Galicia in Spain and it is worlds largest apparel retailer. It serves worldwide and it has its stores in more than 2170 locations. The revenue of the organisation was US$16 billion in 2016 and parent organisation of Zara s Inditex (Zara.com 2017). Zara is immensely popular among the young generation; however, they do not display their logo or brand name much. Zara uses unique marketing tools or models that are a Horizontal model and Pyramid model. Horizontal Model The horizontal model starts the communication from the executive level and the Board of Directors of Zara is mainly responsible for the communication message that reaches all levels. Zara takes the stakeholders' approach to spreading the communication to clients, suppliers, mass media, distributors, communities, customers, employees, public administration and wholesalers (Zara.com 2017). The horizontal approach provides the knowledge inside the firm to spread the valuable information to stakeholders. Pyramid Model Pyramid model gives a one-way flow of idea and communication as communication cannot be presented at managerial level in the same way that is presented in director's message (Viterbi and Omura 2013). In Zara, the managerial team provides the objectives of communication and each leader of various departments have to listen to the communication. The opinion of subordinates is not taken into consideration as an internal process of Zara is not strong. Business communication took by Zara to reach customers Zara spreads a common concept of fast fashion and Zara is going parallel to follow the market trends. Zara mainly uses the continuous and efficient communication systems that have changed the street of marketing. Zara mainly targets the young customers who buy the fashion clothing and Zara provides the fashion trend in the edge that provides them with competitive advantage. Zara mainly uses the strategy of short-term needs of the customers and communicate to the customers through various communication media (Kim et al. 2014). Zara uses the business process and information in market analysis rather than concentrate on the marketing types. Traditional communication Young generation large use the digital platform and Zara can easily target the young generation through using the digital platform (Xu et al. 2014). Zara has been using traditional media as well in reaching the customers effectively. Zara uses Television advertising and it helps the brand to reach large audiences, however, television advertising is costly. Young customers do not like to watch television now and they prefer online medium, however, through television advertising, the brand can communicate a greater number of customers irrespective all ages. In addition, print media are helpful for the brand as the fashion clothing advertisement can be published with colour in fashion magazines, newspapers and leaflet. Additional charges of the print media have to incur by the management and digital media is helpful for the brand (Kaul 2014). Zara uses out-of-home advertisement as the medium of communication; however, it is costly to provide the advertisements in billboards and on hoard ings on the roadside. Online communication Zara has made an online platform to sell their products in various global parts and online platform gives the organisation a boost to gain the popularity. Zara uses the website in order to sell their fashion garments and they generally do the Search Engine Optimisation (SEO) technique and it increases the online traffic of the organisation. Once the customers search the products of Zara using their internet and the same products will automatically come over and over gain on their internet pages, this technique increases the brand image of the organisation (Moshiri and Cardon 2014). The main marketing function of Zara is selecting the location of the business and it operates more than 92% of the stores by themselves rather than other retail that provides better control on the operation. Management of Zara also uses Pay-Per-Click advertising in an online platform to direct traffic to website and advertiser has to pay the publisher when a user clicks on the advertisement. Zara's target is the youth generation and they are fond of the online platform and today Zara has 26 online markets in different parts of the world (Mai and Hoffmann 2014). E-mail communication Zara also does e-mail marketing and the brand sends the customers e-mail by offering n new products or arriving the newest collection of the brand. Sometimes, Zaras PR team sends the personalised discounts to customer and them also wishes the customers on their birthdays and other special occasions. Zara opened a new store in Hawaii and it became their 7000th stores worldwide in 2016 (Bargiela-Chiappini and Nickerson 2014). In the year 2015, the organisation opened more than 360 stores in 55 different market and communication needed to make the brand popular. Social networking communication Zara has been using the Facebook in a regular basis to post the images, discounts, links, offers and videos, it has more than 26,000,000 likes on Facebook and more than 45,00,000 people are talking about the brand on Facebook. In 2017, third quarter shows that Facebook has more than 2.07 billion active users; therefore, it has rich potential for Zara to reach global customers (DiSanza and Legge 2016). On Twitter, the brand has more than 1.28M followers and @ZARA posted 19.3k posts on Twitter. It is a proof that Zaras PR team try to engage the customers on social media and social media is cost-effective media to use. In addition, Zara is using Instagram and there they have 23 million followers. Zara has posted 1680 posts and it highlights the fashion sense of the customers of various regions. Zara gets the advantages of social media communication as they are easy connectivity from every place on earth and the customers can use the online platform from various gadgets and devices. Soci al networking communication provides a long-term competitive advantage with cost-effective. Sponsorship Finally, Zara uses sponsor activities in many events and in many of the sports events. In addition, Zara also provides sponsorship to Television programmes and online web series. In Royal Melbourne Hospital, Zara organises the breast cancer awareness to promote the business of the hospital (Theguardian.com.uk 2017). This social awareness acts as Corporate Social Responsibility and in this event, Zara provides a free check up to the women. Challenges faced in business communication Zara is a global organisation and it has been an issue for the organisation to communicate perfectly across the globes as they have stores in more than 88 markets. Headquarter faces issue to communicate well in other countries where they have stores and all the stakeholders may not have the information about the changes and recent news of the organisational changes (Bovee et al. 2016). Technology is another issue in Zara, however, the organisation has been serving globally, and however, the technical specification to communicate with all stakeholders is not well. The PR team has limited technologies to communicate with the customers and emotion of the customers needs to solve the PR team through e-mail, social media and voice calls. The customers can post any grievance on social media with an image; this image can go viral in no time. In this situation, the crisis communication is very important for the organisation before the flame turns into a disaster. In the year 2015, Zara launched black and white striped shirts with a yellow star on this, the social media outraged with the fashion sense as this type of dress is worn by the Jewish prisoners in concentration camps (Theguardian.com.uk 2017). The image of the shirt got viral and PR team tries to control the condition, however, this led to no result. Zara belongs to the high street fashion clothing organisation and offers the clothing that can afford only by the rich and upper-middle class customers. The business communication of Zara should attract middle-class customers too with the discounted prices in developing countries. Zara is trying to expand in the market like India and other South Asian countries with fashion clothing that can attract the customers. However, in expanding the business in this section, they face issue from perfect competition in these markets. Zara is taking the reactive strategy as this strategy is the preparation to proper management of any situation when an issue arises (Chaney and Martin 2013). Recommendations for improvement of business communication Zara has been facing the issue of making a communication to other offices that are farfetched from headquarter. In this scenario, they can use intranet software to communicate with the employees in any part of the world. This will provide extra benefit to communicate with the stakeholders. The intranet will provide the statistics of employees' share and consumer information. Most importantly, intranet software provides internal collaborative culture as collaboration is the key to global business. Social media analytics Information Communication Technologies can be a perfect use in Zara in order to amalgamate all the social media sources. Social media analytics help the organisation to understand the performance of communication to the users on social media. Social media analysis plan and collected data in social media help Zara to understand their performance and activities. Socialbakers, Google analytics and Zoho are some of the social media analytics that helps to communicate with the users. Culture of customer co-creation In developing countries, Zara's communication does not reach to the young customers and the brand falls under the category of the costly organisation. In these markets, Zara can take the strategy of co-creation of value and it is an economic strategy to bring the different agents together in order to produce mutually valued results. Zara's management needs to communicate with the customers and ask their needs and desires in order to co-create the values. Conclusion It has been observed that Zara targets to the young generation and Zaras unusual fashion clothing attract the youngsters. In the workplace, Zara has been using the two communication models to communicate with the employees; however, they could use intranet software to communicate the employees globally. In communicating with the customers, Zara uses e-mail marketing, sponsorship, social media, print marketing and online media. However, social media analytics can be an assistive technology for Zara to communicate perfectly on time to the customers. Reference List Bargiela-Chiappini, F. and Nickerson, C.R., 2014.Writing business: Genres, media and discourses. Abingdon: Routledge. Bovee, C.L., Thill, J.V. and Raina, R.L., 2016.Business communication today. Sydney: Pearson Education. Chaney, L. and Martin, J., 2013.Intercultural business communication. Sydney: Pearson Higher Ed. Cresci, E. (2017). Zara removes striped pyjamas with the yellow star following online outrage. The Guardian. 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The role of corporate sustainability in a low?cost business modelA case study in the Scandinavian fashion industry.Business Strategy and the Environment,24(5), pp.344-359. Mai, R. and Hoffmann, S., 2014. Accents in business communication: An integrative model and propositions for future research.Journal of Consumer Psychology,24(1), pp.137-158. Moshiri, F. and Cardon, P., 2014. The state of business communication classes: A national survey.Business and Professional Communication Quarterly,77(3), pp.312-329. Sharp, M.R. and Brumberger, E.R., 2013. Business communication curricula today: Revisiting the top 50 undergraduate business schools.Business Communication Quarterly,76(1), pp.5-27. Turker, D. and Altuntas, C., 2014. Sustainable supply chain management in the fast fashion industry: An analysis of corporate reports.European Management Journal,32(5), pp.837-849. Viterbi, A.J. and Omura, J.K., 2013.Principles of digital communication and coding. London: Courier Corporation. Xu, J., Forman, C., Kim, J.B. and Van Ittersum, K., 2014. News media channels: Complements or substitutes? Evidence from mobile phone usage.Journal of Marketing,78(4), pp.97-112. Zara.com. 2017. ZARA Fashion- Official Website. Available at: https://www.zara.com/au/ [Accessed on 19 Nov. 2017].